o 

J) 

I 

a 


TEACHERS 
MANVAL: 

No.  19. 

OUTLINES  OF 
EDUCATIONAI 
HISTORY 


a 

S    JEROME  ALLEN.  PH.  D. 

>\   I-  ite  Dean  of  School  of  Pedagogy,  Univ.  City  of  N.  V. 

3 

COPYRIGHT,   1892. 


KELLOGG -C/-CO 

CHICAGO 


BEST    BOOKS  FOR  TEACHERS, 

Classified   List  under  Subjects. 

To  aid  teachers  to  procure  the  books  best  suited  to  their  purpose,  we 
Mve  IxMow  a  list  of  our  publication*  classified  under  subjects.  Thedivision 
.'•tin:es  ;i  difiii'ult  one  to  niuko,  so  that  we  have  m  many  cases  placed 
the  sain,-  book  under  several  titles;  for  instance,  Currie's  Early  Education 
.'.1'penrs  under  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  EDUCATION,  and  also 
PRIMARY  EDUCATION.  Recent  books  are  starred,  thus  * 

HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION,  GREAT  EDU- 
CATORS, ETC. 

Allen's  Historic  Outlines  ot  Education, 

Autobiography  of  Froebel. 

'Bruwoiiur'fi  Aspects  oi  Education  BestedtUon. 

Educational  Theories.    Best  edition. 

*  aDUCATICNAL  FOUNDATIONS,  bound  VOl.  'fll-^, 

*Kell')irg's  Life  of  Pestalozzi, 

*  Lang's  Comenius,         ______ 

Basedow,      _______ 

liousseau  and  his  "Emile"        - 

Horace  Mann,  - 

O  reat  Teachers  of  Four  Centuries, 

Herbart  and  His  Outlines  of  the  Science 

of  Education.      _____ 
Phelps'  Life  of  David  P.  Page,      -  -       - 

Quick's  Educational  Reformers.  Best  edition.  - 
+  Ueinhart's  History  of  Education, 

PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

Carter's  Artificial  Stupidity  in  School,        -  paper 

*EL>UCATIONAL  FOUNDATIONS,  bound  vol.  '91-'92,  paper 

'92-'93,      cl. 

Fitch's  lmproveme"t  in  Teaching,      -  paper 

*Hall  (G.S.  (Contents  of  Children's  Minds,  -  cl. 
II untington's  Unconscious  Tuition,  -  -  paper 

Payne's  Lectures  on  Science  and  Art  of  Education,  cl. 
Ftemhart's  Principles  ot  Education,  _  _  _  cl. 
*$pencer's  Education.  Best  edition.  -  -  -  cl. 
Perez's  First  Three  Years  of  Childhood,  -  -  cl. 
*Rein's  Outlines  of  Pedagogics,  -  -  cl. 

Tate's  Philosophy  of  Education.  Best  edition.  -  cl. 
*Teachers'  Manual  Series.  24  noe.  ready,  each,  paper 

PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Allen's  Mind  Studies  for  Young  Teachers.       j-          cl.  .50 

Allen's  Temperament  in  Education,  -       -                  cl.  .50 

•Kellogg's  Outlines  of  Psychology,      ...       paper  .25 

Perez's  First  Three  Years  ol  Childhood.  Best  edition,  cl.  1.50 

Hooper's  Apperception,    Best  edition.        -       -         cl.  .25 

Welch's  Teachers'  Psychology,    -       -       -       -          cl.  1.25 

Talks  on  Psychology,    -                                 cl.  .50 


Our 

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GENERAL  METHODS  AND  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 
(\irrie'8  Early  Education,     -  cl.     1.26     l.OO 

Pitch's  Art  of  Questioning,  -  paper  .15 

Fitch's  Art  of  Securing  Attention       ...     paper  .15 

Lectures  on  Teaching,         -  cl.      1.25      l.OO 

[CONTINUED  OK  THIRD  COVER  PAOE.) 


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OUTLINES   OF 


EDUCATIONAL  HISTORY. 


BY 

JEROME  ALLEN,   PH.D., 

DEAN  OF  THE  SCHOOL  OF  PEDAGOGY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK] 
AUTHOR  OF  "  MIND  STUDIES  FOR  YOUNG  TEACHERS,"  ETC. 


REPRINTED  FROM  THE  INTERNATIONAL  CYCLOPEDIA, 
AND  GREATLY  ENLARGED. 


NEW  YORK  AND  CHICAGO: 

E.   L.   KELLOGG  &  CO. 


COPYRIGHT,  1892, 

E.  L.  KELLOGG  &  CO., 

NEW  YORK. 


OUTLINES  OF  EDUCATIONAL  HISTORT. 


. 
Annex 

Cage 

UA 
13 


142.0 
OUTLINES  OF  EDUCATIONAL  HISTORY. 


Definition. — Educatio,  the  Latin  word  from  which 
our  word  education  is  derived,  is  used  by  Cicero  to  rep- 
resent the  eartli  as  the  educator  and  nourisher  of  all 
things.  Tacitus  uses  educare  to  mean  the  nursing  of 
infancy,  but  he  limits  the  use  of  educat/io  to  training. 
Quintiliau,  the  ablest  educational  author  among  the 
Latins,  and  who  was  very  precise  in  the  use  of  words, 
applies  educatio  to  preparatory  instruction,  but  uses  in- 
stitutio  to  represent  what  we  call  academic  instruction. 

Modern  Conceptions. — Among  modern  conceptions, 
that  which  was  embodied  in  the  ideal  of  the  founders  of 
the  Prussian  national  system  has  been  the  most  popular 
among  recent  writers,  and  perhaps  the  least  satisfactory. 
By  them  education  is  stated  to  be  "the  harmonious 
and  equable  evolution  of  the  human  powers."  (See 
Bain's  Education  as  a  Science.)  All  correct  definitions 
of  training  must  refer  to  Plato,  who  said,  "Good  educa- 
tion is  that  which  gives  to  the  body  and  to  the  soul  all 
the  perfection  of  which  they  are  capable."  Every  con- 
ception of  education  must  of  necessity  be  colored  by  the 

840333 


4  Outlines  of  Educational  History. 

philosophical  views  of  the  person  holding  them,  and 
also  by  national  ideals  of  what  school  work  is  to  ac- 
complish. 

Probably  the  most  comprehensive  idea  of  what  correct 
education  should  do  was  expressed  by  Bishop  Temple, 
who  said  that,  "  It  is  the  power  whereby  the  present 
ever  gathers  into  itself  the  results  of  the  past,  and  trans- 
forms the  human  race  into  a  colossal  man  whose  life 
reaches  from  the  creation  to  the  Day  of  Judgment.  The 
successive  generations  of  men  are  days  in  this  man's 
life  The  discovery  of  inventions  which  characterized 
the  different  epochs  of  the  world's  history  are  his  works. 
The  creeds  and  doctrines,  the  opinions  and  principles  of 
the  successive  ages,  are  his  thoughts.  The  state  of  so- 
ciety at  different  times  forms  his  manners.  He  grows  in 
knowledge,  in  self-control,  in  visible  size,  just  as  we  do, 
and  his  education  is  in  the  same  way,  and  for  the  same 
reason,  precisely  similar  to  ours."  Pascal  expressed  the 
same  thought  when  he  said,  "  The  entire  succession  of 
man  through  the  whole  course  of  ages  must  be  regarded 
as  one  man,  always  living  and  incessantly  learning." 

These  broad  conceptions  of  educational  processes  are 
essentially  modern,  and  the  more  they  take  possession 
of  the  minds  of  the  people,  the  more  and  more  will  it  be 
realized  that  education  does  not  consist  in  following 
dogmatic  courses  of  study,  memorizing  little  understood 
statements,  or  mastering  set  tasks,  but  rather  the  joyous 
and  free  exercise  of  all  the  human  powers  in  the  search 
for  truth. 

The  Greek  System  of  Education. — No  system  of 
ancient  education  can  with  more  profit  be  studied  by 


*  Outlines  of  Educational  History.  5 

modern  students,  than  the  Athenian.  Elementary  train- 
ing was  comprehended  under  four  divisions, — gram- 
mar, gymnastic,  music,  and  drawing.  Under  grammar 
was  included  writing,  the  elements  of  calculation,  and 
composition;  under  gymnastic,  the  training  of  the  body 
in  strength  and  endurance.  Music  was  intended  not 
only  as  a  pastime,  but  for  the  purpose  of  giving  harmony 
and  beauty  to  the  body  and  soul.  Under  drawing  was 
comprehended  geometry  and  the  arts  of  design,  as 
painting  and  sculpture.  There  were  in  Athens  and  in 
other  Greek  cities  schools  for  the  instruction  of  chil- 
dren. In  some  of  these  the  teachers  were  paid  by  the 
state,  although  this  was  not  general.  They  were  recog- 
nized by  Solon,  who  provided  against  abuses  in  them 
detrimental  to  children.  The  gymnasia  were  established 
for  the  special  training  of  the  body,  and  were  intended 
to  promote  the  equable  development  of  all  its  parts. 
This  education  commenced  about  the  fourteenth  year, 
when  systematic  attention  was  given  to  the  practice  of 
athletics.  So  much  can  be  said  concerning  Greek  edu- 
cation that  it  is  difficult  to  decide  what  to  omit.  The 
student  of  modern  education  will  find  a  mine  of  wealth 
in  the  methods  of  Greek  culture,  from  which  may  be 
i  obtained  principles  and  practices  of  inestimable  value  to 
the  teacher  in  this  busy  age.  It  is  through  a  careful 
study  of  the  forces  that  have  both  promoted  and  re- 
tarded the  progress  of  the  human  race  that  eminent 
thinkers  of  modern  times  have  been  enabled  somewhat 
clearly  to  ascertain  the  true  object  of  teaching. 

Eminent  Theorizers. — Among  eminent  theorizers  we 
have  Pythagoras,  Plato,   Aristotle,   Cicero,  Quintilian, 


6  Outlines  of  Educational  History.          « 

Abelard,  Ratich,  Comenius,  Locke,  Milton,  Rousseau, 
Rabelais,  Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  and  Spencer.  Each  of 
these  eminent  scholars  has  held  distinct  views  as  to  the 
aims,  possibilities,  and  practical  ideals  of  human  train- 
ing. But  each  of  these  views,  although  to  some  extent 
practical,  were  mainly  theoretical  conceptions  of  what 
education  ought  to  accomplish  under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances. 

Plato's  Education. — Plato's  education  was  essentially 
aristocratic.  He  did  not  think  that  teaching  would  do 
the  lower  classes  any  good.  To  those  who  were  fitted 
by  nature  to  become  guardians  of  the  state  the  people 
must  look  for  the  preservation  of  their  liberties  and  the 
protection  of  their  rights.  Their  natures  are  differ- 
ent from  the  natures  of  other  people;  in  other  words, 
they  are  philosophers  by  nature.  He  would  by  no 
means  have  favored  our  universal  system  of  education, 
organized  and  supported  on  the  theory  that  every  child 
is  capable  of  receiving  a  good  training.  He  denied 
emphatically  the  fundamental  principle,  that  the  state 
is  bound  to  give  every  child  the  means  of  moral,  physi- 
cal, and  mental  training.  Only  those  can  be  rulers  who 
have  been  educated,  and  only  those  can  be  educated 
whose  natures  are  superior. 

The  Rulers  in  Plato's  State.— The  rulers  of  Plato's 
state  were  to  be  chosen  from  the  very  best,  and  from  this 
idea  comes  his  thought  of  the  future,  where  those  who 
have  attained  real  existence  can  have  full  opportunity 
to  enjoy  their  lives.  Plato  was  a  firm  believer  in  im- 
mortality. "The  mind,"  he  says,  "is  all  that  we  call 
ourselves,  and  the  body  attends  it It  is  only 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  j 

after  death,  when  it  has  got  rid  of  the  clog  of  the  body, 
that  we  can  see  what  the  soul  really  is,  whether  com- 
pound or  simple,  and  the  whole  of  its  condition 

The  soul  cannot  die  by  any  affection  of  the  body,  but 
only  by  some  disorder  peculiar  to  itself.  The  soul,  by 
the  death  of  the  body,  does  not  become  more  unjust, 
and  the  death  of  the  body  is  not  the  punishment  of  its 
injustice,  for  death  is  to  it  a  freedom  from  every  evil. 
Since,  then,  neither  the  death  of  the  body  nor  its  own 
depravity  can  destroy  the  soul,  it  must  be  immortal." 

The  Order  of  Plato's  Studies. — In  his  system  mathe- 
matics came  first;  in  the  order,  arithmetic,  plane  and 
solid  geometry,  astronomy,  and  the  science  of  harmony 
in  sound.  But  these  must  not  be  studied  for  the 
practical  benefit  that  may  be  obtained  from  them,  but 
for  the  purpose  of  finding  the  truth.  The  end  of  all 
education  is  to  draw  the  mind  away  from  the  unsub- 
stantial shadows  of  the  present,  and  be  able  to  contem- 
plate the  Idea  of  the  Good.  We  are  to  strive  to  attain 
real  existence.  What  we  now  see  is  not  reality,  but 
shadows  of  reality.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  Plato's 
scheme  is  far  more  comprehensive  than  that  of  any 
modern  theorist. 

Plato  Compared  with  Modern  Theorists. — Locke  is 
intensely  practical,  Milton  is  humanistic  and  some- 
what pietistic,  Rousseau  is  idealistic,  and  the  modern 
.graded  system  is  intensely  formalistic,  but  in  Plato 
nothing  is  omitted  that  can  elevate  the  soul;  in  fact,  his 
effort  may  be  said  to  emancipate  the  soul  and  give  it  a 
large  view  of  the  real  life  that  is  worth  living.  It 
extends  to  the  body  and  the  soul,  covers  the  whole 


8  Outlines  of  Educational  History. 

life,  and  brings  the  mind  into  communion  with  real 
existence. 

School  Education  in  Ancient  Greece. — It  must  be 
ivmembered  that  the  subjects  of  a  school  education  in 
Greece  in  Plato's  time  were  few.  Astronomy  was  for 
the  most  part  nonsensical  astrology;  the  natural  and 
physical  sciences  were  not  thought  of.  Arithmetic, 
except  the  simple  computation  of  accounts,  was  theoreti- 
cal, and  chemistry  was  entirely  unknown.  It  should 
also  be  remembered  that  the  Athenian  ideal  gentleman 
was  a  man  of  leisure  and  wealth.  The  mass  of  the 
people  could  not  be  educated  even  if  they  wanted  to  be. 
A  gentleman  was  high-minded,  aristocratic,  and  proud. 
He  kept  himself  aloof  from  the  crowd,  whom  he  con- 
sidered unworthy  to  associate  with. 

Ancient  and  Modern  Theorists. — The  radical  differ- 
ence between  Plato  and  all  modern  educational  theorists 
is  easily  seen:  yet  it  must  be  remembered  that  he  did 
not  advocate  an  hereditary  form  of  government;  but  he 
did  advocate  purity  of  class,  and  the  necessity  of  early 
discovering  the  children  of  gold  and  the  children  of 
silver  as  separate  from  the  children  of  bronze  and  iron. 
The  children  of  gold  must  be  educated,  for  it  is  neces- 
sary to  the  existence  of  the  state.  They,  and  they  alone, 
can  become  its  guardians.  In  his  early  education  music 
meant  a  great  deal,  for  it  included  the  inner  harmony 
of  the  soul.  He  would  have  nothing  told  children  but 
what  is  good.  The  nursery-songs  must  be  regulated. 
All  bad  influences  must  be  kept  away,  and  even  the 
metre  of  the  poetry  should  be  carefully  guarded.  Gym- 
nastic must  begin  very  early,  and  continue  through  life. 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  9 

Worthless  lives  must  not  be  preserved,  but  good  bodies 
must  be  trained  into  great  strength  and  beauty. 

Aristotle's  Educational  Ideas.— Aristotle's  doctrine 
was  that  no  one  can  be  a  good  ruler  without  first  haviinj 
been  a,  subject,  but  he  makes  a  difference  between  that 
obedience  which  is  free  and  that  which  is  slavish.  The 
Spartans  endeavored  to  produce  obedience  for  the  sake 
of  conquest  and  war.  This  was  slavish.  The  object  of 
government  should  not  be  to  enslave  persons  who  do  not 
deserve  slavery,  but  to  enable  us  not  to  become  the  slatr* 
of  others.  It  is  our  duty  to  cultivate  that  virtue  whirh 
has  its  exercise  in  leisure  for  its  own  sake.  Each  citizen 
must  possess  all  the  virtues,  especially  those  exercised  in 
leisure,  such  as  temperance  and  justice.  But  how  shall 
they  attain  these  virtues?  By  education,  beginning 
with  nature,  training  the  habits,  and  ending  in  the  pro- 
duction of  a  good  reason.  The  training  the  habits  must 
precede  the  training  of  the  reason,  and  the  care  of  the 
body  must  precede  that  of  the  soul,  and  in  the  soul  the 
irrational  part  must  precede  that  of  the  rational.  In  a 
good  state  system  of  education  care  will  be  given  to  pro- 
mote the  good  physical  condition  of  the  citizen.  Mar- 
riage must  be  regulated  according  to  proper  seasons  for 
marrying,  and  the  proper  person  to  marry.  The  man 
must  marry  about  thirty-seven,  and  the  woman  about 
eighteen.  No  crippled  child  should  be  permitted  to 
live.  In  infant  education  diet  is  important.  Children 
should  be  allowed  free  movement,  and  should  be  gradu- 
ally inured  to  cold.  From  infancy  to  the  age  of  five 
there  should  be  no  compulsory  study  or  violent  exer- 
cise, but  enough  movement  in  games  to  prevent  sluggish- 


io  Outlines  of  Educational  History. 

ness.  The  overseers  of  the  youth  must  see  that  children 
do  not  hear  any  improper  tales  or  stories.  All  foul  lan- 
guage is  to  be  prohibited,  and  no  young  person  should 
hear  satirical  plays  or  comedies.  From  five  to  seven, 
time  should  be  given  to  the  "observation"  of  the  lessons 
they  require  to  learn  in  the  future  themselves.  Educa- 
tion,in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word, does  not  begin  until 
after  seven  years,  and  may  be  divided  into  two  parts : 
from  seven  to  young  manhood  and  womanhood,  from 
this  time  to  twenty-one. 

Three  Questions  Proposed. — Aristotle  now  discusses 
three  questions:  1.  Is  it  desirable  to  have  a  definite 
educational  system?  2.  Should  education  be  committed 
to  the  state,  or  to  private  individuals  ?  3.  If  there  is  to 
be  a  system  of  education,  what  should  be  its  nature  ?  In 
treating  of  this  subject  he  makes  the  following  points: 
1.  The  education  of  the  young  has  paramount  claims 
upon  the  legislators,  and  as  there  is  a  certain  character 
proper  to  each  state  polity,  so  the  nature  of  the  polity 
will  determine  the  educational  system  of  each  state.  It 
is  evident  that  education  must  be  regulated  by  the  state; 
for  the  state  as  a  whole  is  one,  and  so  it  follows  that  the 
education  of  all  the  citizens  must  be  one  and  the  same, 
and  the  state  must  see  to  it  that  it  is  so.  Every  citizen 
is  not  his  own  master,  but  a  part  of  the  state. 

Aristotle's  Discussion  of  Subjects. — Aristotle  thinks 
that  there  is  much  uncertainty  as  to  the  subjects  to  be 
studied :  (1)  Are  they  those  that  are  merely  useful  as  a 
means  of  getting  a  living  ;  (2)  or  such  as  tend  to  the 
growth  of  virtue  ;  or  (3)  the  higher  studies?  It  is  right 
to  use  subjects  that  are  indispensable,  but  not  those  that 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  i  i 

have  a  degrading  influence  by  reducing  a  child  to  the 
level  of  a  slavish  worker,  or  that  unfits  the  body,  soul,or  in- 
tellect for  the  practice  of  virtue.  There  are  some  subjects 
that  are  liberal  in  themselves,  but  illiberal  in  their  effect 
upon  the  mind  if  studied  in  excess.  It  is  not  so  much  the 
study,  as  the  object  for  which  it  is  taken  up,  that  makes 
it  liberal  or  illiberal.  The  essential  branches  of  school 
study  are  reading  and  writing,  gymnastic,  music,  and 
the  art  of  design.  Reading  and  writing  are  usually 
taught  for  their  practical  utility,  gymnastic  for  promot- 
ing valor,  and  music  for  general  culture.  Amusement 
is  a  temporary  relaxation,  but  leisure  means  happiness. 
The  subjects  studied  with  a  view  to  leisure  form  the 
highest  part  of  an  education,  and  the  use  of  music  is 
found  when  it  promotes  the  rational  enjoyment  of  leis- 
ure. It  is  a  liberal  and  noble  study  when  properly  pur- 
sued. The  study  of  the  arts  of  design  makes  us  scientific 
observers  of  beauty. 

The  Value  of  Gymnastics. — Education  should  begin 
with  physical  exercise.  This  practice  may  be  carried  too 
far,  either  making  the  body  too  athletic,  and  so  fitted 
for  personal  encounter,  or  brutal,  as  in  Sparta.  Each  of 
these  destroy  natural  growth  and  grace.  Valor  is  not 
the  chief  end  of  education.  Nobleness  should  hold 
the  first  place  in  a  school  system.  Aristotle's  plan  of 
gymnastic  education  is:  From  childhood  to  youth,  light 
exercises,  no  hard  diet.  For  three  years  after  youth, 
other  pursuits,  but  afterward  hard  diet  and  severe  exer- 
cise, up  to  full  maturity.  The  body  and  the  mind 
should  not  be  subjected  to  severe  exertions  at  the  same 
time.  Music  may  be  studied  (1)  for  amusement,  (2) 


12  Outlines  of  Educational  History. 

for  moral  training,  (3)  for  giving  a  means  of  rational 
enjoyment.  Music  has  a  moral  power,  for  it  produces 
certain  states  of  the  soul,  as  enthusiasm,  and  gives  us 
representations,  of  anger,  courage,  gentleness,  sympathy, 
etc.  Since  children  like  everything  to  be  sweetened,  and 
since  there  is  a  natural  sweetness  in  music,  it  should  be 
practised.  An  incidental  benefit  is  found  in  the  fact 
that  music  keeps  children  occupied,  but  care  should 
be  taken  in  the  choice  of  melodies  and  rhythms  which 
they  practise.  Performances  of  an  exceptional  or  pro- 
fessional kind  should  be  forbidden.  The  playing  of  all 
instruments  demanding  professional  skill  should  be  for- 
bidden; in  fact,  all  such  exercises  should  be  excluded 
from  a  public  educational  course. 

The  Practical  Ideal. — In  the  progress  of  human 
thought  the  practical  ideal  has  been  gaining  in  general 
popularity,  yet  in  Sparta  there  was  a  system  of  train- 
ing that  proposed  to  take  away  every  force  except  that 
which  would  render  the  child  of  the  greatest  possible  use 
to  the  state.  In  Eome,  the  dominant  idea  was  potestas 
—power,  glory,  magnificence.  Rome  did  not  train  the 
masses  so  that  each  individual  in  the  state  could  reach 
the  highest  development  his  nature  was  capable  of. 
The  ability  to  command  others  and  surround  one's  self 
with  a  retinue  of  servants,  an  army  of  followers,  and  the 
power  of  commanding  the  obsequious  homage  of  all 
with  whom  he  might  come  in  contact  was  encouraged. 
During  the  middle  ages  the  practical  ideal  was  largely 
lost  sight  of,  but  since  the  Renaissance,  and  especially 
since  the  thoughts  of  Lord  Bacon  have  influenced  the 
popular  mind,  this  ideal  has  been  growing  in  power 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  13 

until  to-day  the  average  father  has  no  thought  that 
the^  school-training  of  his  son  has  any  value  unless  it 
tits  him  to  do  something,  in  other  words,  helps  him  to 
make  a* living.  So  it  is  that  we  have  a  multitude  of 
trade,  music,  drawing,  and  business  schools. 

The  Dogmatic  Ideal. — Directly  opposed  to  the  practi- 
cal is  the  dogmatic  ideal.  According  to  this,  an  educa- 
tion consists  in  mastering  the  technicalities  of  a  course 
of  study,  in  getting  good  marks,  and  graduating  with 
honor.  There  have  been  traces  of  this  ideal  all  down 
the  ages;  especially  has  it  been  powerful  in  shaping  the 
educational  practices  of  the  Chinese,  where  little  atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  thought  of  the  author  studied,  but 
all  efforts  are  devoted  toward  the  memorizing  of  words. 

The  First  Modern  Course  of  Study. — The  first  Euro- 
pean in  modern  times  who  mapped  out  a  formal  course 
of  study  that  should  be  followed  by  all  students  desir- 
ing to  receive  the  best  education  was  John  Sturm.  His 
intimate  friend  Roger  Ascham,  the  tutor  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  and  Queen  Elizabeth,  advocated  his 
ideas  with  such  vigor  and  success  that  the  great  English 
public  schools  adopted,  in  the  main,  his  methods,  and 
until  the  present  time  they  have  followed  with  little 
variation  his  directions.  This  dogmatic  ideal  took  so 
strong  hold  of  the  minds  of  educators  that  it  kept  our 
great  preparatory  schools  and  colleges  in  bondage  to  a 
fixed  curriculum,  from  which  it  was  considered  im- 
proper to  depart. 

Points  in  Sturm's  Course. — In  Sturm's  course  of 
study  Latin  and  Greek  held  the  prominent  place;  and 
so  strenuous  have  teachers  been  in  following,  without 


14  Outlines  of  Educational  History. 

proper  variation,  this  ideal,  that  it  was  difficult  to  in- 
troduce mathematics  and  the  sciences  into  the  English 
public  schools,  and  until  within  a  few  years  no  New 
England  college  required  an  examination  in  English  as 
a  requisite  for  admission  to  their  Freshman  class.  A 
notable  application  of  this  dogmatic  thought  has  been 
made  in  arranging  public-school  courses  of  study,  and 
so  strict  have  some  superintendents  been  in  requiring 
that  all  teachers  of  a  certain  grade  should  do  certain 
prescribed  work  at  exactly  the  same  time  and  in  the 
some  way,  that  one  supervisor  boasted  that  he  knew 
what  each  teacher  in  his  employ  was  doing  at  a  certain 
hour  and  minute. 

With  the  progress  of  correct  educational  thought  in 
the  past  few  years  this  dogmatic  idea  has  lost  much  of 
its  power,  and  more  freedom  is  given  to  individual 
teachers  in  training  the  pupils  under  their  care  for  com- 
plete living.  This  change  has  taken  place  through  the 
influence  of  educational  reformers,  whose  works  will  be 
briefly  referred  to  in  another  part  of  this  article. 

The  Christian  System. — No  sketch  of  educational  work 
would  be  complete  without  reference  to  the  doctrines 
taught  by  Christ  and  the  practices  of  the  Christian 
Church.  These  doctrines  may  be  divided  into  two  parts 
— spiritual  and  practical.  In  conducting  the  education 
of  a  child  the  Christian  teacher  assumes  that  nothing 
but  a  union  of  the  soul  with  God  through  Christ  will 
suffice  to  drive  out  the  presence  of  sin,  and  fortify  the 
life  against  its  attacks.  In  practical  duties  self-abnega- 
tion is  the  end  to  be  reached.  This  ideal  is  contained 
in  the  golden  rule.  During  the  Christian  centuries  the 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  15 

world  has  been  powerfully  influenced  by  these  two  doc- 
trines. 

A  New  Element. — Christianity  iiitroduced  a  new  ele- 
ment into  the  civilization  of  the  world.  Devotion  and 
sincerity  became  at  once  the  marked  characteristics 
of  the  Christians.  Home  education  preceded  formal 
sclool  training,  and  in  the  family  select  passages  of 
Scripture,  songs,  and  the  stories  connected  with  the 
birth  and  death  of  Christ  constituted  the  main  part  of 
instruction.  More  formal  methods  grew  out  of  the 
necessity  of  giving  special  education  to  converts  from 
the  heathen,  who  were  ignorant  of  the  distinctive  doc- 
trine of  the  new  religion. 

The  First  Class  of  Christian  Pupils. — The  first  class  of 
learners  were  called  Catechumens,  or  hearers.  These 
were  candidates  for  baptism  and  full  membership,  and 
were  permitted  to  attend  and  take  part  in  all  the  exer- 
cises of  the  Church  except  the  celebration  of  the  Holy 
Communion.  All  people,  of  all  grades,  ranks,  ages, 
and  kinds  of  culture,  even  philosophers,  statesmen,  and 
rhetoricians,  were  embraced  in  this  class.  The  instruc- 
tors of  these  persons  were  called  Catechists,  and  were 
the  first  distinct  class  of  teachers  in  the  early  Church. 
The  duration  of  this  instruction  continued  sometimes 
two  years,  sometimes  three,  but  could  be  shortened  at 
the  discretion  of  the  Church  officers.  At  first,  teaching 
was  informal,  but  it  soon  grew  into  formal  ways,  and 
school  buildings  were  attached  to  all  the  principal 
churches :  thus  from  almost  the  very  beginning  of  Chris- 
tianity the  school  and  the  church  have  been  inseparable. 
The  subjects  studied  in  these  schools  were  the  Lord's 


1 6  Outlines  of  Educational  History. 

Prayer,  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  the  articles  of 
Christian  faith,  the  Creed,  the  Liturgy,  and  the  Church 
chants. 

The  Second  Class. — To  these  were  soon  added  higher 
schools  for  the  training  of  the  authorized  teachers  And 
preachers  of  the  Church,  the  first  of  which  was  said  to 
be  founded  by  the  Apostle  Mark,  at  Alexandria.  £his 
school  came  under  the  care  of  Origen,  in  the  year  211, 
and  was  continued  by  him  for  twenty  years.  This 
being  the  first  of  its  kind,  was  a  type  of  similar  schools 
until  Christianity  became  the  state  religion  of  the 
Roman  empire,  and  the  doctrines  of  the  Christian  iaith 
were  studied  in  all  public  institutions.  Origen  taught 
philosophy,  logic,  in  order  to  enable  his  pupils  to  know 
true  reasoning  from  false;  physics,  that  they  might 
understand  and  admire  the  works  of  God;  geometry 
and  astronomy  to  lift  the  heart  from  earth  to  heaven. 
These  theological  seminaries  were  established  wherever 
there  was  any  considerable  number  of  Christians,  and 
many  of  these  became  the  commencement  of  the  Uni- 
versities of  the  Middle  Ages.  As  time  advanced  and 
the  philosophy  of  Athens  and  Alexandria  disappeared, 
the  Church  found  it  necessary  to  give  more  attention  to 
the  training  of  highly  cultivated  minds  and  high  liter- 
ary attainments.  Clemens,  the  teacher  of.  Origen,  be- 
lieved in  making  Christian  doctrine  as  conclusive  and 
precise  as  philosophical  study.  He  was  very  liberal, 
and  taught  that  the  wisdom  of  the  heathen,  though  dif- 
fering in  form  from  Christianity,  coincides  with  it  in 
spirit  and  in  truth.  Here  we  find  the  commencement 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  1 7 

of  a  distinct  theology,  and  the  beginning  of  a  new 
philosophy. 

The  Hebrew  System. — The  theocratic  idea  of  educa- 
tion held  by  the  Hebrews  has  been  more  faithfully  fol- 
lowed by  the  Semitic  race  than  any  other  conception. 
The  Jews  believed  that  they  were  the  chosen  people  of 
God,  and  from  their  earliest  childhood  they  were  looked 
upon  as  religious  beings,  and  for  hundreds  of  years  the 
elders  and  fathers  were  the  teachers  of  the  people.  The 
children  were  required  to  learn  the  laws  of  God,  to  write 
them  on  leaves,  on  sand,  and,  in  later  times,  on  vellum. 
This  learning  by  heart  of  select  portions  of  Scripture, 
and  a  simple  notation  by  the  letters  of  the  alphabet 
used  as  figures,  constituted  all  of  their  elementary  edu- 
cation. One  characteristic  of  Hebrew  education  was  its 
industrial  system — all  children,  of  high  and  low  birth, 
were  obliged  to  learn  a  trade.  Thus,  Christ  was  a  car- 
penter, Paul  a  tent-maker.  Rabbi  Judah  said  that  "  he 
who  teacheth  not  his  son  a  trade,  does  as  if  he  taught 
him  to  be  a  thief;"  and  Rabbi  Gamaliel  said,  "He  who 
hath  a  trade  in  hand  is  like  a  vineyard  that  is  fenced." 

Ruling  Motive. — Great  stress  should  be  laid  upon  the 
prevailing  motive  ruling  the  civilized  world,  for  it  is  an 
axiom  that  nothing  comes  without  a  cause,  and  the 
greater  the  effect  the  greater  must  be  the  cause.  It 
matters  very  little  as  to  the  exact  time  when  any  event 
occurred,  but  it  does  matter  a  great  deal  for  us  to  de- 
termine the  relation  of  events  to  each  other,  and  how 
waves  of  thought  have  swept  over  the  world,  affecting 
not  only  dominant  civilizations,  but  all  that  obtains  in 
household  arrangements,  methods  of  instruction,  gov- 


1 8  Outlines  of  Educational  History. 

ernment,  and  religious  rites.  The  student  of  history 
learns  to  measure  time  by  events,  and  to  remember  that 
what  may  seem  a  long  period  is  in  reality  a  short  time 
when  the  character  of  the  results  accomplished  is  con- 
sidered. 

An  Important  Event. — When  Constantino  espoused 
the  cause  of  Christianity  a  great  event  occurred,  because 
up  to  this  time  Roman  power  and  Roman  religion  were 
one  and  the  same  thing.  The  emperor  was  pontifex 
maximus,  and  had  from  Augustus  down  to  Constantino 
received  adoration  as  God.  It  was  not  until  some  time 
after  that  the  Christian  religion  became  accepted  by 
the  state  at  large;  but  the  first  period  in  pedagogical 
history  closes  when  the  heathen  schools  came  to  an  end, 
and  Christian  schools  took  their  place. 

The  Third  Era. — This  time  marks  the  commencement 
of  the  third  educational  era  since  Christ,  and  closes 
when  scholastic  philosophy  ruled  Europe.  At  the  end 
of  this  third  era  appears  Charlemagne,  and  after  his 
time  two  great  forces  greatly  influenced  educational 
thought:  these  were  Feudalism  and  the  Crusades. 
From  the  rise  of  scholasticism  to  the  Revival  of  Learn- 
ing marks  the  fourth  era  in  educational  history  since 
Christ,  and  from  the  Revival  of  Letters  the  fifth. 

Causes  Sought  For. — Let  us  go  back  over  the  work  we 
have  already  done  for  the  .purpose  of  finding  out  the 
causes  of  these  great  changes  in  the  world's  history. 
The  most  important  question  for  us  to  ask  and  answer 
is,  what  has  been  the  ruling  motive  since  the  dawn  of 
civilization  ?  We  have  had  very  little  to  do  with  thought 
outside  the  Grecian  and  the  Roman  nations.  It  would 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  1 9 

have  been  interesting  for  us  to  have  turned  aside  and 
investigated  the  rest  of  the  world,  but  it  would  not  have 
been  especially  profitable,  for  from  the  earliest  com- 
mencement of  history  down  to  the  present  time  there 
has  been  from  Homer  a  continuous  thread  of  educa- 
tional thought  with  which  we  must  ever  be  most  deeply 
interested. 

What  Thought  is  Allied  to  Us. — It  is  true  that  our 
relations  as  Christians  to  the  Jews  may  lead  us  to  study 
Hebrew  institutions,  but  this  would  not  be  especially 
profitable  to  us,  for  our  thought  is  as  different  from, 
Hebrew  thought  as  from  Chinese  or  Hindoo  thought. 
The  philosophy  of  the  Greeks,  and  especially  the  Alex- 
andrian Greeks,  was  tinctured  by  Oriental  ideas;  but 
this  we  must  take  as  we  find  it  without  stopping  to 
investigate  the  sources  of  the  materials  entering  into 
this  new  compound.  Also  after  the  Saracenic  invasion 
of  Europe  we  find  thought  tinctured  again  with  Oriental 
conceptions.  Here  we  must  take  what  we  find  without 
stopping  to  ascertain  the  origin  of  the  forces  antedating 
their  reception  into  European  schools. 

The  First  Scientific  Educator. — The  first  that  was 
known  concerning  the  science  of  education  came  from 
Socrates,  who  stands  out  as  the  one  great  educational- 
figure  in  this  world's  history — grander  than  all  other 
figures,  because  his  thought  excels  all  other  thought 
before  his  time.  Homer  only  reflected  the  world  in 
which  he  lived ;  his  grand  ideals  were  not  creations  so 
much  as  adaptations  and  permutations.  His  masterly 
genius  wove  into  beautiful  forms  the  great  conceptions 
of  the  world  in  which  he  lived,  but  no  notion  of  his  was 


20  Outlines  of  Educational  History. 

in  advance  of  his  time.  That  which  marks  the  great 
man  arc  his  ethical  tio/itm*.  What  is  his  basis  of  right? 
— not  what  is  his  idea  of  God,  but  what  is  his  science 
of  duty  ? — on  what  does  he  base  his  motive  of  action  ? 
Before  Socrates  we  find  no  greats-  ethical  philosopher; 
everything  revolved  around  an  immediate  object.  Solon 
legislated  and  educated  the  people  into  habits  of  order 
and  peace,  and  at  the  crowning  period  of  Grecian  his- 
tory all  the  tribes  were  united  under  the  leadership  of 
Pericles,  because  he  had  great  individual  power. 

The  Era  of  Pericles. — No  Grecian  legislator  can  be  com- 
pared with  Pericles  in  respect  to  personal  power.  With 
him  there  sprang  a  galaxy  of  men  who  have  been  the  ad- 
miration of  the  ages,  and  will  be  to  the  end  of  time. 
Under  their  direction  the  immortal  works  of  sculpture 
were  prod  need  that  have  been  studied  since;  the  dramas 
of  ^schylus  and  Sophocles,  the  histories  of  Thucydides 
and  Herodotus;  and  the  great  philosophers,  Socrates, 
Plato,  and  Aristotle.  The  thought  that  ruled  the  world 
at  this  time  was  a  love  of  the  beautiful  as  distinguished 
from  mere  show,  devotion  to  philosophy,  boldness  and 
daring,  without  fool  hardiness,  for  such  according  to 
Pericles  were  the  marks  of  the  true  Athenian. 

Spartan  Ideals. — In  Sparta  the  leading  idea  was  polit- 
ical authority  of  a  rigid  and  abstract  kind,  causing  the 
life  to  be  merged  into  and  subordinated  to  that  of  the 
state,  repressing  the  freedom  of  the  individual,  and 
making  all  practical  ideals  dead  equalities  regulated  by 
public  authority.  Everything  in  Sparta  was  arranged 
for  the  purpose  of  homogeneity,  such  as  eating  at  public 
tables,  and  putting  the  family  life  in  the  background. 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  2 1 

The  motive  under  this  was  all  they  knew  of  virtue;  but 
with  the  best  Athenians  eating  and  drinking  we  re  private 
affairs,  excepting  at  special  times  when  large  num- 
bers eame  together  at  the  table,  and  this  was  not  in 
order  so  mueh  for  the  purpose  of  eating  and  drinking 
as  for  the  enjoyment  of  intellectual  intercourse.  The 
virtue  of  the  Spartan  was  political,  but  with  the  Athe- 
nians it  centred  in  a  consciousness  of  the  beautiful  and 
the  adapted. 

The  Sophists. — The  Sophists  before  the  time  of 
Socrates  did  little  more  than  to  make  the  practice  of 
questioning  accepted  beliefs  and  the  authority  of  exist- 
ing institutions  fashionable.  Thought  up  to  this  time 
subordinated  the  subject  to  the  object.  No  great 
thinker  had  turned  the  thoughts  of  men  into  themselves. 

How  Socrates  differed  from  the  Sophists.— Socrates  de- 
clared to  his  countrymen  the  one  thing  needful  for  their 
spiritual  well-being.  It  was,  that  knowledge  and  right 
are  one  and  the  same;  that  they  should  not  merely  will 
and  do  the  things  that  seem  to  them  to  be  right,  but 
that  they  should  do  and  will  these  things  knowingly. 
Everything  should  be  brought  to  the  test  of  knowledge, 
a»d  this  knowledge  must  be  of  the  freest,  fullest,  and 
the  best.  Intelligence  and  intellectual  conviction  are 
the  ground  for  action.  The  thoughts  of  man  must  be 
'turned  away  from  the  beautiful  temples  to  the  beautiful 
soul.  Socrates  professed  to  be  guided  by  an  oracle 
within  which  made  itself  known  to  him,  and  which  he 
followed.  Here  marks  the  greatest  epoch,  excepting  the 
advent  of  the  Saviour,  in  the  educational  history  of  this 
world.  Here  commencBS  the  rising  sun  of  subjectivity, 


22  Outlines 'of  Educational  History. 

illumining  the  world  through  the  inner  self  and  guiding 
men  out  from  themselves  into  other  selves,  and  thus 
laying  the  foundation  of  the  grandest  of  all  Christian 
doctrines  ever  promulgated  in  this  world  of  ours — the 
brotherhood  of  man,  coming  from  the  conception  of  the 
inherent  dignity  of  man.  But  the  acceptance  of  this 
new  principle  was  destructive  of  all  that  was  character- 
istic of  the  Grecian  world  before  the  time  of  Pericles. 
Its  beauty  of  objects,  its  choice  freshness  of  exterior 
relations,  its  usefulness  and  wholeness  as  symbolized  in 
its  temples  and  statues  and  paintings,  were  gone. 

The  Effect  of  Socrates's  Teaching. — The  Grecians  did 
right  to  condemn  Socrates  to  death;  it  was  a  neces- 
sary thing  if  they  desired  the  preservation  of  their  old 
philosophy;  but  the  thought  of  Socrates  took  root,  and 
the  death  of  the  man  could  not  kill  the  immortal  prin- 
ciples he  had  given  to  the  world.  Yet  Greece  in  con- 
demning Socrates  condemned  itself,  and  when  the  final 
death-blow  was  dealt  to  Grecian  unity  and  the  temple 
at  Delphi  was  desecrated,  and  when  at  last  all  Grecian 
independence  disappeared  under  the  universal  rule  of 
Roman  imperialism,  we  simply  trace  the  progression  of 
Socrates's  philosophy  as  manifested  through  succeeding 
philosophers.  The  principles  of  this  immortal  man,  who 
first  of  all  men  this  world  has  ever  produced,  turned 
men's  thoughts  away  from  the  world  without  to  the 
larger,  better,  grander,  more  beautiful  world  within, 
were  never  destroyed,  and  will  never  be  destroyed  to  the 
end  of  time. 

The  Influence  of  Rome. — Rome  rose,  and  for  a  time  it 
seemed  as  though  she  would  be  eternal.  But  when  we 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  23 

cvimine  into  her  inner  life  we  find  that  it  was  ex- 
••<••!  ingly  miserable,  measured  by  the  ethical  standard 
<>!'  the  ages.  According  to  the  judgment  of  the  think- 
ing world  no  comparison  can  be  made  between  the  life 
of  a  typical  (in-dun  saint  like  Socrates  and  the  stoical 
life  of  a  Roman  like  Caesar.  The  founders  of  Rome 
believed  in  themselves  and  nothing  more.  By  deceit 
and  violence  they  secured  their  wives,  and  by  despotic 
authority  and  severity  they  kept  them  and  their  families 
in  subjection. 

The  Spirit  of  Roman  Civilization. — As  long  as  this 
Roman  spirit  ruled  in  the  Roman  state  there  was  no 
grounding  of  the  family  relation  on  love  and  mutual 
confidence,  but  the  basis  was  despotic  authority  and 
severity  on  the  one  hand,  and  complete  dependence  and 
subjection  on  the  other.  The  wife  belonged  to  the  hus- 
band as  his  land  and  slaves  belonged  to  him.  The 
Roman  form  of  marriage  was  nothing  more  nor  less  than 
a  bill  of  sale,  and  the  authority  the  father  had  over  his 
children  was  only  that  which  he  had  in  his  lands  and 
their  possession.  He  was  a  despot  in  his  family,  and 
only  acknowledged  allegiance  to  a  power  stronger  than 
himself;  therefore,  because  he  was  compelled  to  do  so, 
he  gave  unqualified  subjection  to  the  authority  of  the 
state.  Power  was  the  basis  of  Roman  greatness.  While; 
the  early  Greek  ideal  of  right  was  found  in  forms  of 
beauty  and  adaptation  in  the  external  world,  and  while 
Socrates  found  it  in  the  knowledge  of  self  and  their  re- 
lation to  the  knowledge  of  self,  in  the  Roman  state  it 
was  found  in  individual  power,  the  highest  incarnation 
of  which  was  the  emperor,  above  whom  there  could  be 


24  On i lines  of  Educational  History. 

nothing  greater.  Artistic  and  harmonious  beauty  was 
nowhere  to  be  found.  Thoughtful  inner  consciousness 
was  in  the  mind  of  the  typical  Roman  nonsense. 

The  Meagreness  of  Roman  Philosophy. — All  that  was 
grasped  was  the  notion  of  legal  personality  without  the 
agreements  of  individual  feeling,  without  the  possibility 
of  a  future.  It  was  a  bloodless,  heartless  centralization 
of  all  in  one;  that  one  the  head  of  the  family,  and  above 
him  the  head  of  the  state,  and  above  him  nothing — not 
even  God  Himself.  There  was  no  piety  in  the  Roman 
state,  there  was  no  poetry  in  the  Roman  heart;  for  poetry 
and  piety  come  from  our  knowledge  of  self  and  the 
recognition  of  a  higher  power,  thinking,  acting,  living 
somewhere  in  the  eternal  spheres.  Jupiter  to  the 
Romans  was  an  abstraction  of  a  useful  power,  and  Juno 
and  Minerva,  Venus  and  all  the  other  gods,  represented 
relations  in  life  that  could  be  handled,  seen,  felt,  meas- 
ured. The  Roman  was  an  atheist  as  far  as  recognizing  any 
power  above  the  supreme  being  of  the  state  as  a  typical 
all-powerful  individual  could  make  him  an  atheist. 
Before  him  was  nothing  he  cared  to  investigate,  and  after 
him  nothing  he  cared  to  think  about.  Himself  was  the 
all-powerful,  all-wise,  and  the  all  and  in  all  of  what  he' 
cared  to  be  or  become. 

Effect  of  Roman  Philosophy. — Now  what  was  the  effect 
of  all  this  upon  the  thought  of  the  Roman  world?  It 
is  not  necessary  to  state.  Every  student  of  history  well 
knows  what  that  despotic  will  was  which  declared  that 
nothing  should  exist  in  all  the  Roman  empire  contrary 
to  what  the  emperor  willed.  Every  sect  must  be  sup- 
pressed, every  thought  must  be  killed,  every  emotion 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  25 

must  be  destroyed,  by  the  arm  of  the  law  (vi  et  armis). 
Thus  the  Roman  state  was  the  supreme,  unquestioned 
ruler  of  thought  and  action  as  far  us  the  Roman  eagle 
was  planted  as  the  standard  of  imperialism. 

How  Rome  came  to  be  Great. — How  Rome  came  to  be 
dominant  is  not  now  a  subject  under  consideration.  Suf- 
ficient to  say  that  she  ruled  the  world  for  a  thousand  years. 
But  another  force  appeared :  Jesus  was  born,  the  historic 
Christ  came,  at  the  very  time  when  this  Roman  individ- 
ualism was  enjoying  its  grandest  triumphs;  when  one  of 
its  best  emperors  was  in  the  seat  of  Caesar.  The  goal  of 
all  previous  time  and  the  starting-point  of  all  history  to 
come  was  in  the  manger  atBetlehem.  When  Christ  was 
first  adored  by  the  wise  men  of  the  East,  the  spiritual 
law  of  Socrates,  "  Man,  know  thyself,"  here  met  the 
highest  law  that  was  to  inaugurate  a  grander  civilization 
— the  law  of  the  union  of  God  with  man. 

A  Comparison  of  Thoughts. — The  only  approximation 
to  introspection  that  the  Roman  had  found  was  in  his 
theory  of  legal  personality;  and  the  highest  spiritual 
conception  of  the  Greek  was  in  looking  upon  things 
unseen  in  the  inner  sanctuary  of  conscious  personality 
and  will.  Each  person  under  the  Roman  empire  was  an 
atom;  the  great  monad  was  the  state:  but  when  Christ 
appeared  He  taught  a  new  philosophy.  It  was  in  ad- 
vance of  what  Socrates  taught,  Plato  conceived,  and  Ar- 
istotle enforced. 

Christ's  Doctrine. — The  foundation  of  Christ's  doc- 
trine was  the  intimate  connection  of  the  conscious  ego 
with  the  absolute  spirit,  who  is  from  everlasting  and 
shall  be  to  everlasting — the  Spirit  of  Truth.  When  David 


26  Outlines  oj  Educational  History. 

prayed,  "  Create  in  me  a  clean  heart,  0  God;  and  renew 
it  right  spirit  within  me,"  he  uttered  a  thought  purely 
Socratic  in  its  nature;  and  when,  farther  back,  men  knew 
good  from  evil,  it  was  the  doctrine  of  subjectivity:  it  was 
consciousness  of  spiritual  hurt  and  spiritual  pain  that 
led  them  to  realize  the  fact  that  they  were  far  inferior  to 
that  which  they  ought  to  be.  But  when  Christ  declared 
that  the  true  essence  of  all  knowledge  is  to  know  God, 
He  uttered  a  truth  which  is  at  the  very  centre  and  core  of 
Christian  philosophy.  It  is  a  truth  so  deep,  so  far-reach- 
ing, so  all-comprehensive,  that  salvation,  if  we  know 
what  the  word  means,  comes  by  it.  Perfection  is 
through  and  in  this  all-comprehensive  truth;  and  when 
Christ  declared,  "  the  truth  shall  make  you  free,"  He 
declared  a  fact  which  was  life  eternal.  So  Christ  re- 
vealed  man  to  himself  as  a  spiritual  being,  and  this 
means  that  the  conscious  soul  can  obtain  perfection  by 
nothing  short  of  organic  union  with  God;  and  that  this 
union  is  to  be  reached  through  the  knowledge  of  the  true 
God,  who  is  a  spirit,  and  wljose  spiritual  essence  can  be- 
come a  part  of  our  individual  conscious  essence;  and 
thus  we  become  the  companions  of  our  Heavenly  Father, 
and  one  of  a  glorious  company  of  all  others  who  are  in 
spiritual  union  with  Him.  This  union  or  unity  causes  us 
to  become  new  creatures:  before  that  we  walked  alone  in 
the  light  of  individual  consciousness,  knowing  ourselves, 
studying  our  wants,  guiding  our  thoughts,  reaching  up- 
ward, outward,  onward,  longing  with  an  infinite  desire 
for  the  true,  the  good,  and  the  beautiful;  trying  to  gain 
light  from  Socrates  and  Plato  and  Aristotle,  with  the 
other  great  and  good  souls  who  were  before  them.  But 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  27 

now  a  new  thought  comes :  we  are  not  alone — "  God  is 
with  us."  We  are  partakers  of  the  Divine  nature;  as  a 
brunch  is  united  to  the  vine,  so  we  are  united  to  God. 
We  have  put  off  the  old  individualism  of  self,  and  now 
there  is  another  to  walk  with  us — none  other  than  God 
Himself.  He  now  takes  us  by  the  hand:  more  than  that 
— enters  into  our  inner  self,  becomes  identified  with  us, 
becomes  a  part  of  us  and  we  a  part  of  Him;  and  no 
more  are  we  alone,  but  in  Him  and  by  Him  and  with 
Him  we  live  and  move  and  have  our  being.  We  are  now 
dual — heirs  of  an  inheritance  which  our  Father  has 
given  us.  We  are  now  sons  of  God. 

Effect  of  Christian  Belief. — Now  let  a  man  believe  this 
doctrine  fully  and  freely,  unreservedly;  let  him  become 
convinced  that  he  has  thus  been  united  to  God,— and  to 
him  there  is  a  new  life  and  infinite  joy  and  source  of 
immeasurable  confidence  and  strength.  The  very  essence 
of  Christian  philosophy  consivsts  in  believing  in  God,  the 
absolute  Being,  the  perfect  Spirit,  the  eternal  and  un- 
created Intelligence  and  Essence  of  all  things.  Also 
identifying  himself  with  Christ's  Spirit  and  with  God's 
Spirit,  and  these  becoming  identified  with  our  spirit, 
and  thus  living  in  conjunction  with  us,  guiding,  con- 
trolling all  our  conduct,  and  leading  us  to  be  the  sons  of 
God,  so  in  Him  the  individual  man  becomes  as  perfect 
as  it  is  possible  for  God  to  be  perfect.  This  is  the  doc- 
trine of  Christ;  and  so  He  commands  His  followers,  "Be 
ye  perfect  even  as  your  Father  who  is  in  heaven  is  per- 
fect." Not  a  perfectness of  the  individual,  but  the  per- 
fection of  the  God -nature  filling  the  human  soul. 

The  Extent  of  Christian  Belief. — Now  in  tracing  the 


a8  Outlines  of  Educational  History. 

history  of  educational  thought  we  recognize  the  fact  that 
this  doctrine,  or  rather  perhaps  we  ought  to  say  conrir- 
linii,  became  fastened  upon  the  civilized  world.  Tens  of 
thousands  believed  it  as  they  believed  in  their  own  lives. 
They  gave  themselves  up  with  an  abandonment  of 
thorough  conviction  to  the  results  that  such  a  belief 
would  promote.  What  were  their  lives  ?  Why  should 
they  count  them  valuable  ?  What  was  their  property  ? 
Why  should  it  be  kept  ?  I  am  not  alone:  He  who  is  in 
me,  a  part  of  whom  I  am,  He  who  guides  me,  whose 
slave  I  am — He  is  my  master,  and  where  He  goes  I 
will  go,  and  what  He  tells  me  to  suffer  I  will  suffer.  All 
things  are  His.  These  great  truths  are  expressed  in  the 
Nicene  Creed,  325  A.D. 

The  State  of  the  Argument. — This  is  not  here  an  ar- 
gument urging  the  truth  or  the  falsehood  of  these  far- 
reaching,  soul-stirring  doctrines.  It  does  not  matter 
whether  one  be  Agnostic  or  Christian;  but  it  does  matter 
that  we  recognize  fully  and  completely  the  influence  of 
this  thought  upon  the  civilized  world,  and  we  should 
learn  to  trace  the  reason  why  Christianity  overthrew  the 
remnant  of  Roman  power  and  became  the  ruling  force 
and  central  spirit  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire. 

Three  Phases  of  Thought. — Now  we  have  three  great 
phases  of  thought:  (1)  Up  to  Socrates,  Objective  ;  (2) 
from  Socrates,  Subjective;  (3)  from  Christ,  Spiritual; 
for  what  has  been  said  concerning  the  doctrine  of  the 
Christian  is  what  is  meant  when  we  say  spiritual. 

Teutonic  Force. — One  more  element  of  thought  re- 
mains to  be  introduced,  for  as  we  trace  the  history  of 
the  world  we  shall  find  the  Teutonic  thought  coming 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  29 

into  prominence  and  ruling  with  some  degree  of  force 
the  thoughts  of  the  world.  The  celebrated  picture  of 
Tacitus  of  Germania  shows  us  a  condition  and  character 
of  people  that  we  must  admire,  especially  when  we  place 
it  over  against  the  individualism  of  the  Roman  world. 
The  ethical  force  of  the  Teutonic  character  as  expressed 
by  the  one  word  Oemilth  or  GemiUhliclikeit.  Perhaps 
the  best  translation  of  this  word  in  English  is  "a  feel- 
ing of  satisfaction" — a  sort  of  contentment  in  reference 
to  one's  self.  In  this  resides  the  ethical  philosophy  of 
the  Germanic  character.  It  doesn't  suppose  much  in- 
tellectual force,  nor  does  it  imply  great  motive  power, 
but  simply  rather  a  state  of  feeling  which  leads  the 
individual  to  be  content  with  the  world  as  it  is,  and  the 
condition  of  society  in  which  he  finds  himself.  It 
doesn't  require  the  belief  in  the  existence  of  God  or  the 
presence  of  spirits.  It  does  not  lead  its  possessor  to 
build  temples,  construct  statues, or  compose  imaginative 
poems ;  but  it  does  lead  people  having  this  Gemilth 
to  value  the  comforts  of  home,  to  possess  some  good 
idea  of  mother  and  wife  and  children,  and  get  some 
adequate  conception  of  conjugal  and  filial  love. 

The  Essence  of  Teutonic  Philosophy. — It  would  not 
form  a  code  of  laws  like  Moses,  nor  mark  out  penalties  for 
what  we  would  now  consider  crimes.  With  the  German, 
murder  did  not  forfeit  life,  but  was  atoned  for  by  the 
payment  of  a  fine.  There  were  few  crimes  and  few 
severe  penalties,  and  thus  the  very  watchword  of  the 
German  is  liberty  and  loyalty.  And  this  loyalty  is  first 
to  the  family,  and  second  to  the  state,  as  far  as  that  state 
to  them  represents  the  family  on  a  large  scale.  We  shall 


30  Outlines  of  Educational  History. 

recognize  this  force  in  tracing  the  progress  of  educational 
thought. 

Mahometanism. — In  the  seventh  century  there  appeared 
a  new  doctrine:  its  name  has  become  synonymous  with 
power.  Mahometanism  made  prodigious  progress.  But 
what  is  the  ethical  thought  underlying  this  wonderful 
religion  ?  It  seemed  to  take  like  wildfire.  Its  votaries 
were  enthusiastic  beyond  the  power  of  words  to  express. 
Forces  of  passion  burned  in  their  literature,  and  the 
Oriental  nations  were  captivated  by  the  thought  of 
Mahomet  (Prince  of  God).  The  principle  was  simply 
the  abstract  idea  of  the  Jewish  God,  stripped  of  all 
limitations  included  in  the  Jewish  conceptions  of  Him. 
"  It  was  the  Jewish  God  conceived  in  power  and  abstract 
unity  that  became  the  God  of  all  the  world.  .  Before 
Him  every  knee  must  bow."  This  was  the  simple 
and  universal  requirement  which  Mahomet  enforced. 
"  Before  Him  nothing  is  feared,  and  all  differences  of 
high  and  low,  of  family,  caste,  or  nation,  are  of  no  ac- 
count." The  philosophers  of  this  doctrine  considered 
they  had  attained  the  highest  merit  in  the  eyes  of  God 
in  dying  for  their  faith,  and  whoever  tried  to  conquer 
the  world  to  the  idea  of  God  was  certain  of  entering  at 
once  into  ineffable  bliss.  "  God  is  God,  and  Mahomet  is 
His  prophet"  was  the  watchword  in  the  seventh  century, 
and  is  the  ethical  doctrine  of  more  millions  on  earth 
to-day  than  sign  their  allegiance  to  any  other  creed  the 
world  now  knows,  or  ever  has  known  since  the  world  be- 
gan. God  is  all — must  be  acknowledged  as  law,  order, 
fate,  the  world  past,  the  world  to  corne.  The  boundless 
universe,  unknown  to  us,  but  known  to  Him, — all  are 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  31 

God's  and  with  the  sword  of  the  Prophet  uplifted  his  fol- 
lowers stand  over  us  to-day  as  they  have  stood  for  the  cen- 
turies past  with  the  command,  "  Confess  this  or  you  die." 
If  you  acknowledge  this  with  your  lips, — whether  you  be- 
lieve it  or  not  in  your  heart,  it  matters  not, — but  if  you 
with  your  uplifted  hand  swear  by  this  creed,  you  live; 
and  so  long  as  yqu  continue  to  swear  by  this  creed  you 
shall  live;  but  the  very  moment  you  fail  to  say,  "God  is 
God  and  Mahomet  is  His  prophet " — that  moment  you 
shall  die.  That  is  all  there  is  of  Mahometanism. 

A  Review. — A  brief  review  of  educational  progress, 
especially  in  this  country,  will  be  necessary  in  order  to 
know  what  advancement  has  been  made,  and  what  are  the 
special  needs  of  our  times.  At  the  Revival  of  Learning 
scholars  all  at  once  woke  up  to  the  realization  of  the 
fact  that  a  mine  of  literary  wealth  had  been  lying  just 
within  easy  reach,  but  of  which,  for  hundreds  of  years, 
they  had  been  ignorant.  The  thought  of  the  world  was 
quickened  into  intense  activity.  Convents  were  searched, 
and  libraries  of  monasteries  ransacked  for  lost  manu- 
scripts of  classical  works,  and  the  search  was  rewarded 
with  wonderful  success.  Aristotle  and  Plato  were  re- 
translated from  the  original  Greek,  and  new  editions  of 
Latin  authors  appeared  with  marvellous  rapidity.  The 
art  of  printing,  which  reached  a  great  degree  of  per- 
fection early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  greatly  aided 
the  dissemination  of  this  new  knowledge.  The  old 
world,  that  seemed  to  have  been  asleep  for  five  hundred 
years,  opened  its  eyes  in  amazement  and  joy  upon  a  new 
literature,  and  so,  new  thought.  The  works  of  the  an- 
cients were  almost  worshipped,  and  he  who  could  write 


3a  Outlines  of  Educational  History. 

and  speak,  with  case  and  fluency,  Ciceronian  Latin  was 
considered  among  the  greatest  scholars  of  his  time. 
Ecclesiastics  became  accomplished  classicists,  cathedral 
schools  were  opened  everywhere,  especially  for  the  study 
of  Latin. 

The  Revival  of  Learning. — At  the  opening  of  the 
sixteenth  century  Europe  had  fairly  inaugurated  a  new 
educational  era.  Just  at  this  time  the  age  of  discovery 
and  maritime  adventure  began — the  New  World  had 
been  found — but  this  was  only  the  commencement  of 
far  more  dangerous  voyages,  and  far  more  exciting  ad- 
ventures than  Columbus  ever  experienced.  Books  con- 
taining a  little  truth,  with  a  good  deal  of  fiction,  and 
illustrated  in  the  most  sensational  manner,  were  pub- 
lished in  many  countries  of  Europe.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  century  schools  were  founded  every- 
where, and  no  order  was  more  active  in  accomplishing 
this  work  than  the  Jesuits.  So  popular  did  thoir  schools 
become,  that  many  Protestant  parents  intrusted  their 
children  to  them  for  instruction.  In  Germany  princes 
as  well  as  educators  exerted  themselves  to  improve  and 
multiply  their  schools.  Before  this  time  John  Sturm 
had  established  a  gymnasium  in  Strasburg,  where  he 
taught  forty-five  years,  and  was  greatly  influential  in 
fixing  methods  of  instruction  in  all  of  Europe. 

The  Jesuits  and  Sturm. — Whether  the  Jesuits  did 
more  than  Sturm  to  establish  the  methods  of  classical 
teaching  is  a  disputed  question,  but  Sturm  said,  "  I  have 
observed  what  writers  the  Jesuits  explain,  and  what 
method  they  follow,  and  it  differs  so  little  from  ours 
that  it  seems  as  if  they  had  drank  from  our  foun- 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  33 

tain."  Yet  it  is  evident,  as  Von  Raumer  has  said,  that 
"  Protestants  and  Catholics  sought  the  same  object  in 
their  efforts  for  literary  culture."  The  ideal  was  Cicero- 
nian Latin  eloquence.  It  was,  in  fact,  a  pure  philologi- 
cal training,  in  which  almost  everything  else  was  lost 
sight  of  except  speaking  and  writing.  French,  German, 
and  English  were  not  valued  as  literary  languages. 
Latin  became  the  means  of  communication  between  all 
who  laid  any  claim  to  having  a  liberal  education. 

Ratich. — Among  those  who  attempted  to  reform  these 
systems  of  teaching  were,  first,  Wolfgang  Ratich,  and 
after  him  Johann  Amos  Comenius.  Both  of  these  men 
devoted  their  lives  to  the  advocacy  of  their  ideas — Ratich 
with  moderate  and  Comenius  with  a  great  degree  of 
success.  It  was  urged  by  them  and  their  followers  that 
the  common  method  of  instruction  of  their  time  was  "  a 
blind  groping,  without  road  or  object."  They  declared 
that  words  were  put  too  soon  in  the  mouths  of  scholars; 
that  they  were  required  to  name  and  describe  things 
strange  to  them,  and  so,  many  school  exercises  were 
"empty  talking  without  any  real  substance."  They  in- 
sisted that  all  pupils,  even  the  youngest,  should  under- 
stand what  they  were  required  to  say  and  do,  and  should 
be  able  to  give  a  clear  account  of  their  thoughts,  in  cor- 
rect words  and  sentences  made  by  themselves.  Ratich 
urged  the  necessity  of  first  reading  and  speaking  the 
mother-tongue  correctly  and  fluently.  Hebrew,  Greek, 
and  Latin  should  be  studied  in  the  order  named,  but  the 
German  language  should  be  the  medium  of  communica- 
tion in  all  German  schools,  lie  divided  his  school  into 
six  classes,  in  the  three  lowest  of  which  the  mother- 


34  Outlines  of  Educational  History. 

tongue  was  solely  used.  In  the  fourth  Latin  was  com- 
menced, and  in  the  sixth,  Greek.  The  teacher  of  the 
lowest  classes  need  know  no  language  but  German,  and 
he  "  should  form  the  tongues  and  languages  of  the  new 
scholars  according  to  pure  Misnian  dialect,  by  daily 
prayer,  short  Bible  texts,  and  questions  in  the  form  of 
ordinary  conversation." 

The  Maxims  of  Ratich  and  Comenius. — The  favorite 
maxim  of  Ratich  and  his  followers,  "per  inductionem 
el  experimentum  omnia,"  was  purely  Baconian,  and 
shows  that  the  spirit  of  this  philosopher  influenced,  at 
least  to  some  extent,  this  educational  reformer.  Co- 
menius was  a  man  of  greater  breadth  and  scholarship 
than  Ratich.  He  wrote  several  valuable  books,  one  of 
which,  the  Opera  DidacMca,  filled  more  than  a  thou- 
sand folio  pages,  and  is  "a  most  rich  treasure  of  acute 
and  profound  thoughts."  But  the  book  that  gave  Co- 
menius his  greatest  fame  was  his  Orbis  Pictus,  which 
appeared  in  1657,  and  was  for  a  hundred  and  fifty  years 
the  most  popular  text-book  of  the  world.  It  was  a  prin- 
ciple of  Comenius  that  teaching  should  begin  with  the 
presentation  of  actual  things.  In  the  Orbis  Pictus 
everything  was  illustrated  by  pictures — the  book  is  full 
of  figures  and  cuts,  "by  the  help  of  which  the  attention 
will  be  awakened  and  the  imagination  pleased."  This 
was  the  forerunner  of  the  thousands  of  illustrated  school- 
books  which  have  appeared,  but  among  all  that  have 
followed  not  one  has  been  more  minutely  or  profusely 
illustrated  than  this.  Comenius  must  be  considered  the 
first  learned  educational  reformer  of  recent  centuries, 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  35 

and  the  time  will  never  come  when  his  opinions  will 
not  be  quoted  with  respect. 

The  Emile. — Except  the  writings  of  Comenius,  no 
book  has  made  a  more  decided  impression  upon  the  edu- 
cational world  than  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau's  Emile.  Its 
plan  of  instruction  is  to  allow  the  youthful  mind  to  un- 
fold without  restraint.  Necessity  alone  is  to  regulate 
the  education  of  a  child  until  reason  is  strong  enough  to 
be  its  guide.  The  reading  of  the  Emile  by  J.  Heinrich 
Pestalozzi  was  the  means  of  leading  him  to  realize 
the  true  philosophy  of  education.  Like  Rousseau,  his 
principles  were  founded  entirely  upon  the  following  of 
nature.  It  took  him  a  long  time  to  find  the  means  of 
reaching  the  best  results,  but  in  the  end  his  method 
was  so  clearly  shown  that  no  teacher  who  desires  to  fol- 
low him  need  be  at  a  loss  to  know  what  to  do.  No 
modern  educational  reformer  has  exerted  so  strong  an 
influence  in  taking  unreasonable  and  unnatural  practices 
out  of  the  schools,  and  introducing  in  them  the  correct 
order  in  developing  a  human  being.  The  name  of  Pes- 
talozzi is  deservedly  held  in  high  esteem  by  all  students 
of  modern  educational  science. 

Froebel. — Froebel  was  a  pupil  of  Pestalozzi,  but 
Froebel  saw  the  light  far  clearer  than  Pestalozzi  did. 
His  book  was  childhood.  He  became  intimate  with 
children;  and  their  giving  to  him  their  gifts,  out  of  the 
fulness  and  freshness  of  their  young  hearts,  also  gave 
him  the  central  thought  of  his  Kindergarten  system- 
unselfishness, — working  for  others  without  regard  to  self. 
This  led  him  to  arrange  his  system,  that  economises  the 
waste  energies  of  childish  activities  and  utilizes  what 


36  Outlines  of  Educational  History. 

had  before  been  considered  unworthy  of  notice:  and 
this  he  did  without  repressing  the  natural  free  spirit  of 
childhood  (Joseph  Payne).  Froebel  insists  that  play 
is  the  natural  business  and  occupation  of  the  child,  and 
that  through  play  the  work  of  education  can  be  made 
both  methodical  and  effective.  Two  words  embody  the 
practice  of  the  kindergarten — plays  and  gifts. 

Early  New  England  Education. — From  Comenius  to 
the  United  States  is  but  a  single  step,  for  he  was  invited 
to  become  president  of  Harvard  College.  Fifteen  years 
after  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims  public  schools  were 
established  in  Massachusetts,  and  all  children  were 
obliged  to  attend  them.  A  fine  of  $50  was  imposed 
upon  the  parent  for  failure  in  doing  his  duty.  Tuition 
was  required  of  all  who  were  able  to  pay  it.  In  1683 
every  town  of  500  inhabitants  in  Massachusetts  was 
obliged  to  maintain  a  grammar-school  in  addition  to  the 
primary  school,  and  those  towns  failing  to  do  so  were 
taxed  and  the  proceeds  given  to  the  next  adjoining 
town.  In  1636  the*  Legislature  of  Massachusetts  voted 
£400  toward  the  founding  of  a  college.  It  was  named 
in  honor  of  Rev.  John  Harvard,  who  left  £700  in  1638, 
and  a  library  of  300  volumes,  to  the  new  institution. 

Early  New  York  Education. — The  Dutch  settlers  on 
Manhattan  Island  established  a  school  in  1633;  others 
followed,  which  were  supported  by  the  town  and  the 
church.  When  the  English  took  possession  of  the  island, 
in  1674,  every  town  and  village  in  the  colony  had  a 
public  school,  in  which  tuition  was  given  to  all  unable 
to  pay.  Few  public  schools  were  found  west  and  south 
of  New  York  before  the  commencement  of  the  present 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  37 

century,  although  higher  instruction  was  encouraged, 
and  the  charter  of  the  College  of  William  and  Mary,  in 
Virginia,  was  granted  in  1688.  It  provided  for  a  col- 
lege president  and  six  masters,  who  were  to  give  instruc- 
tion in  all  the  branches  of  a  liberal  education.  This  in- 
stitution continued  in  active  existence  until  the  outbreak 
of  the  civil  war.  In  1746  the  colonial  legislature  of 
New  York  authorized  the  raising  of  money  by  a  lottery 
for  the  establishment  of  a  college,  the  proceeds  of  which 
were  devoted  to  the  founding  of  King's  College,  now 
Columbia. 

Later  New  York  Education.  —  The  Western  States 
learned  wisdom  from  the  experience  of  the  old  cotynies, 
for  the  ordinance  of  1787,  organizing  the  Northwestern 
Territory,  provided  that  "religion,  morality,  and  knowl- 
edge being  necessary  to  good  government  and  to  the 
happiness  of  mankind,  schools  and  the  means  of  educa- 
tion shall  be  forever  encouraged."  Public  laiids  were 
designated  for  the  support  of  schools,  and  each  of  the 
new  States  levied  taxes  for  their  maintenance.  The 
school  system  of  New  York  must  always  look  to  Gov- 
ernor Clinton  as  its  father,  for  on  his  recommendation, 
in  1795,  "  the  sum  of  $50,000  was  appropriated  for  five 
years  for  the  support  of  common  schools."  This  has  in- 
creased from  year  to  year,  until  in  1890  the  sum  raised 
in  the  State  of  New  York  by  direct  taxation  for  the 
support  of  schools  amounted  to  $13,600,000.  In  all  the 
States  of  the  Union  the  educational  tax  has  so  increased 
that  the  income  from  this  source, according  to  the  com- 
missioner of  Education,  amounted,  in  1891,  to  the  enor- 
mous sum  of  $132,000,000. 


38  Outlines  of  Educational  History. 

Public  schools  that  fifty  years  ago  charged  tuition  to 
those  able  to  p:iy,  are  now  entirely  free  to  all  of  school 
age,  and  in  many  cities  text-books  and  other  neceswiry 
appliances  are  furnished. 

Public  Education  of  Recent  Origin. — There  were  no 
active  efforts  in  this  country  to  promote  a  generous,  free, 
public  education  until  near  the  close  of  the  last  cen- 
tury. Brouson  Alcott,  the  well-known  author,  born  in 
Massachusetts  in  1T99,  speaking  of  schools  in  the  early 
part  of  the  present  century,  said  that,  "  until  within  a 
few  years  no  studies  have  been  permitted  in  the  day- 
school  but  spelling,  reading,  and  writing.  Arithmetic 
was  taught  by  a  few  instructors  one  or  two  evenings  a 
week."  Slates  were  unknown  for  school  use  until  after 
the  Kevolu  tionary  War,  and  blackboards  have  been  com- 
mon only  during  the  past  fifty  years.  The  Rev.  William 
Woodbridge,  a  successful  teacher  in  the  early  part  of 
this  century,  said  that  in  Connecticut  in  his  younger 
days  he  has  known  boys  who  could  do  something  in  the 
first  four  rules  of  arithmetic,  but  girls  were  never  taught 
it. 

When  the  republic  was  established  the  people  began 
to  realize  that  without  universal  intelligence  the  union 
of  the  States  could  not  be  permanent.  School  funds 
were  created  in  all  the  New  England  States,  but  owing 
to  a  lack  of  unity  of  action,  the  progress  was  not  so 
rapid  in  New  York,  and  the  States  west  and  south.  As 
late  as  1865  rate-bills  were  in  use  in  New  Jersey,  New 
York,  Rhode  Island,  Michigan,  and  Connecticut.  But 
it  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the  giving  of  an  ele- 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  39 

mentary  education  to  each  child  in  the  country,  both 
rich  and  poor,  is  a  debt  the  State  owes  and  must  pay. 

In  many  of  the  States  the  whole  work  of  conducting 
the  schools  is  given  into  the  hands  of  either  a  board  of 
education,  or  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
who  reports  to  the  legislature  at  its  meetings. 

The  New  York  Public-school  Society. — In  the  city  of 
New  York  the  Public-school  Society  was  established  in 
1805,  and  had  charge  of  all  public  instruction  in  the 
city.  Its  first  president  was  De  Witt  Clinton,  and  it 
continued  to  provide  public  instruction  until  1853,  when 
it  voluntarily  turned  over  to  the  city  its  entire  system  of 
schools  and  property,  to  the  amount  of  $600,000. 

George  Clinton. — George  Clinton  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  common-school  system  of  New  York,  and  in 
fact  of  the  whole  country,  in  1795;  and  DeWitt  Clinton 
crowned  a  long  life  of  honor  and  usefulness  by  requir- 
ing the  State  to  give  to  every  child  within  its  borders 
the  means  of  getting  an  elementary  English  education, 
free  of  all  expense.  Strong  efforts  have  been  recently 
put  forth  to  make  all  education,  both  higher  and  lower, 
free.  By  a  vote  of  the  people  of  New  York  a  free  acad- 
emy for  boys  was  established  in  1847.  This  has  become 
the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York,  for  the  support  of 
which  the  city  annually  appropriates  the  sum  of  $150,000. 
The  Female  Normal  School,  now  the  Normal  College, 
was  founded  in  1870,  and  receives  an  annual  support 
from  public  funds  to  the  amount  of  $125,000. 

Public  High-schools, — Public  high-schools,  giving  the 
elements  of  a  liberal  education,  have  been  established 
in  most  of  the  cities  and  larger  towns  in  the  Union,  and 


40  Outlines  of  Educational  History. 

in  many  instances  the  buildings  in  which  these  schools 
assemble  are  among  the  best  constructed  and  most 
thoroughly  equipped  public  edifices  in  the  country. 
State  universities,  supported  by  public  funds,  and  largely 
attended  by  both  young  men  and  women,  have  been 
founded  by  nearly  all  the  States;  and  in  some  instances, 
as  Ann  Arbor  in  Michigan  and  Cornell  in  New  York, 
they  have  become  institutions  of  great  effectiveness. 
The  establishment  and  permanence  of  these  colleges 
have  been  greatly  promoted  by  the  aid  they  have  re- 
ceived through  grants  of  public  lands  from  the  General 
Government.  Independent  and  denominational  colleges 
have  increased  to  such  a  degree,  that  each  leading  denom- 
ination has  one  and  sometimes  three  colleges  in  each 
state. 

Early  Normal  Schools. — The  first  normal  school  of 
which  we  have  any  mention  was  established  in  Kheims, 
France,  in  1681,  by  the  Christian  Brothers;  but  it  was  not 
until  1846  that  the  first  building  erected  in  this  country 
for  a  public  normal  school  was  dedicated  at  Bridge- 
water,  Mass.  The  promoter  of  this  enterprise  was  the 
distinguished  Horace  Mann,  the  foremost  American  edu- 
cator of  this  century.  At  the  present  time  most  states 
in  the  Union  have  normal  schools,  and  some  have  many 
entirely  supported  by  public  funds,  in  which  teach- 
ers are  trained  in  the  theory,  science,  and  art  of  their 
calling.  The  State  of  New  York  has  ten  of  these 
schools,  supported  by  annual  appropriations  amounting 
in  the  average  to  more  than  $200,000. 

First  University  School  of  Pedagogy. — The  first  uni- 
versity to  establish  education  as  a  distinct  professional 


Outlines  of  Educational  History.  41 

department  of  study,  on  the  same  grade  as  law,  medicine, 
and  theology,  was  the  University  of  the  City  of  New 
York.  Its  school  of  pedagogy  was  inaugurated,  with 
definite  courses  and  degrees,  in  May,  1890. 

In  addition  to  the  many  educational  forces  already 
mentioned,  there  are  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 
a  large  number  of  scientific,  theological,  law,  and  manual- 
training  schools.  Each  State  has  its  deaf,  dumb,  and 
blind  institutions,  as  well  as  soldier-orphan,  idiot,  and 
reformatory  schools. 

Educational  Journals  in  the  United  States. — In  the 
different  parts  of  the  United  States  there  are  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  periodicals  devoted  exclusively  to  the 
discussion  of  educational  questions.  Next  to  business, 
religion,  and  politics,  no  subject  to-day  engrosses  so 
much  of  the  thought  of  the  intelligent  people  of  the  civil- 
ized world  as  education,  and  it  is  safe  to  predict  that  the 
coming  generation  of  boys  and  girls  will  get  far  more 
good  from  their  school-training  than  has  ever  been  real- 
ized during  the  history  of  the  human  race. 

Educational  Books. — A  large  number  of  important 
works  have  been  published  within  the  last  fifteen  years. 
Among  those  held  in  esteem  by  teachers  are :  J.  G. 
Fitch,  Lectures  on  Teaching;  Currie,  Early  Educa- 
tion ;  Patridge,  Quincy  Methods;  Parker,  Talk*  on 
Teaching;  Welch,  Teacher's  Psychology;  Payne  Lec- 
tures on  the  Science  and  Art  of  Education;  Tate, 
Philosophy  of  Education;.  Quick,  Essays  on  Educational 
Reformers,  2d  ed.  (1890);  0.  Browning,  Introduction  to 
the  History  of  Educational  Theories  (1882). 

The  reader  is  referred  in  addition  to  the  following 


42  Outlines  of  Educational  History. 

works:  Pestalozzi,  Sdmmtliche  Schriften,  5  vols.  (1826); 
Tommaseo,  Sull,  Educazione  (1851);  Morley,  Defence  of 
Ignorance  (1851);  Horace  Mann,  Letters  and  Reports  on 
Education  (1867);  Brochard,  History  and  Progress  of 
Education  (I860);  Markby,  Practical  Essays  on  Educa- 
tion (1868);  Mullinger,  The  Schools  of  Charles  the  Great 
(1877);  Barnard,  German  Educational  Reformer s(\8!&); 
Jolly,  Education,  its  Principles  and  Practice  (1879)  ; 
Thring,  Education  and  the  School  (1876);  Kiddle  and 
Schem,  Cyclopaedia  of  Education  (1877);  Kingsley, 
Health  and  Education,  2d  ed.  (1887);  Malmffy,  Old 
Greek  Education  (1882);  Galloway,  Education,  Scientific 
and  Technical  (1881);  Paulsen,  Geschichte  des  Gelehrten 
Unterrichts  auf  den  Deutschen  Schulen  und  Universi- 
taten  (1885);  Painter,  History  of  Education  (1886); 
Herbert  Spencer,  Education,  Intellectual,  Moral,  and 
Philosophical  (1886);  Rousseau,  Emile,  with  Notes  by 
Julius  Steeg  (1885);  Eosenkranz,  Philosophy  of  Edu- 
cation (1886);  Bain,  Education  as  a  Science  (1886); 
Sonnenschein,  A  Cyclopcedia  of  Education,  ed.  by 
Fletcher  (1889);  Rosmini  Serbati,  TJie  Ruling  Principles 
of  Method  Applied  to  Education,  English  translation 
(1887);  Guyau,  Education  et  Heredite  (1889);  Jacobi, 
rinjsiological  Notes  on  Primary  Education  (1889); 
Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education,  30  vols.; 
Compayre's  History  of  Pedagogy;  Dr.  Friedrich  Dittes, 
Geschichte  der  Erziehung  und  des  Unterrichtes,  fur 
deutsche  Volksschullehrer ;  Dr.  Karl  Schmidt,  Geschichte 
der  Pddagogik  von  Dr.  Emanuel  Hannak. 


«*»  ALJL,  •KDBtta  It* 

Jfc  i.  KELLOQG  A  CO.,  JVE  PF  FORK  <fc  CHICAGO.     27 


Parke/s  Talks  on  Teaching. 

Notes  of  "Talks  on  Teaching"  given  by  COL.  FRANCIS  W, 
PARKER  (formerly  Superintendent  of  schools  of  Quincy, 
Mass.),  before  the  Martha's  Vineyard  Institute,  Summej 
of  1882.    Reported  by  LEIJA  E.  PATRIDGE.    Square  16mo, 
5x6  1-2  inches,  192  pp.,  laid  paper,  English  cloth.    Price, 
$1.25  ;  to  teachers,  1 1.00  ;  by  mail,  9  cents  extra. 
The  methods  of  teaching  employed  in  the  schools  of  Quincy. 
Mass.,  were  seen  to  be  the  methods  of  nature.    As  they  were 
copied  and  explained,  they  awoke  a  great  desire  on  the  part 
of  those  who  could  not  visit  the  schools  to  know  the  underly- 
ing principles.    In  other  words,  Colonel  Parker  was  asked  to 
explain  why  he  had  his  teachers  teach  thus.    In  the  summer 
of  1882,  in  response  to  requests,  Colonel  Parker  gave  a  course 
of  lectures  before  the  Martha's  Vineyard  Institute,  and  these 
were  reported  by  Miss  PatrMge,  and  published  in  this  book. 

The  book  became  famous  j 
more  copies  were  sold  of  it  in 
the  same  time  than  of  anj 
other  educational  book  what- 
ever.  The  daily  papers,  which 
usually  pass  by  such  booka 
with  a  mere  mention,  devoted 
columns  to  reviews  of  it. 

The  following  points  will 
show  why  the  teacher  will 
want  this  book. 

1.  It  explains   the    "  New 
Methods."     There  is  a  wide 
gulf  between  the  new  and  the 
old  education.     Even   school 
boards  understand  this. 

2.  It  gives  the  underlying 
principles  of  education.  For  it 

must  be  remembered  that  Col.  Parker  is  not  expounding  hit 
methods,  but  the  methods  of  nature. 

8.  It  gives  the  ideas  of  man  who  is  evidently  an  "  educa- 
tional genius,"  a  man  born  to  understand  and  expound  educa- 
tion. We  have  few  such  ;  they  are  worth  everything  to  th« 
human  race. 

4.  It  gives  a  biography  of  Col.  Parker.    This  will  help  th« 
teacher  of  education  to  comprehend  the  man  and  his  motives. 

5.  It  has  been  adopted  by  uearlv  every  State  Reading  Circle 


SEND  ALL  ORDERS  TO 

B.  L.  KELLOGG  &  CO.,  NEW  YORK  &  CHICAGO.   33 


Reception  Day.     6 

A  collection  of  fresh  and  original  dialogues,  recitations,  decla- 
mations, and  short  pieces  for  practical  use-  in  Public  and 
Private  Schools.  Bound  in  handsome  new  paper  cover,  160 
pages  each,  printed  on  laid  paper.  Price,  30  cents  each;  (A 
teacJiers,  24  cents;  by  mail,  3  cents  extra. 

The  exercises  in  these  books  bear  upon  education;  have  a  rela- 
tion to  the  school-room. 

1.  The  dialogues,  recitations,  and  declamations  gathered  in 

this  volume  being  fresh,  short, 
|  and  easy  to  be  comprehended,  are 
"""  well  fitted  for  the  average  scholars 
of  our  schools. 

2.  They  have  mainly  been  used 
;!  by    teachers    for    actual    school 

exercises. 

3.  They  cover  a  different  ground 
from  the  speeches  of  Demosthenes 
and  Cicero — which  are  unfitted 
for  boys  of   twelve    to    sixteen 
years  of  age. 

4.  They  have  some  practical  in- 
terest for  those  who  use  them. 

5.  There  is  not  a  vicious  sen- 
tence uttered.     In  some  dialogue 
books  profanity  is  found,  or  dis- 
obedience to  parents  encouraged, 
or  lying  laughed  at.     Let  teachers 
look  out  for  this. 

6.  There  is  something  for  the 
youngest  pupils. 

7.  "Memorial  Day  Exercises"  for  Bryant,  Garfield,  Lincoln, 
etc.,  will  be  found. 

8.  Several  Tree  Planting  exercises  are  included. 

9.  The  exercises  have  relation  to  the  school-room,  and  bear 
upon  education. 

10.  An  important  point  is  the  freshness  of  these  pieces.     Most 
of  them  were  written  expressly  for  this  collection,  and  can  be 
found  nowJiere  else. 

Boston  Journal  of  Education.— "  It  is  of  practical  value." 
Detroit  Free  Press.—"  Suitable  for  public  and  private  schools." 
Western  Ed.  Journal.—"  A  series  of  very  good  selections." 


<322?S=;P> 

NEW  COVER. 


8*N»  ALL  O&DER8  TO 

84    B.  L.  KELLOGG  &  CO.,  NEW  YORK  A  CHICAGO. 


WHAT  EACH   NUMBER  CONTAINS. 


No.  1 

Is  a  specially  fine  number.    One  dia- 
logue in  it,  called  "  Work  Conquers," 
for  11  girls  and  G  boys,  has  been  given 
hundreds  of  times,  and  is  alone  worth 
the  price  of  the  book.    Then  there 
are  21  other  dialogues. 
29  Recitations. 
14  Declamations. 
17  Pieces  for  the  Primary  Class. 

No.  2.  Contains 

29  Recitations. 
12  Declamations. 

17  Dialogues. 

24  Pieces  for  the  Primary  Class. 

And  for  Class  Exercise  as  follows: 

Tin-  Bird's  Party. 

Indian  Names. 

Valedictory. 

Washington's  Birthday. 

Qarfleld  Memorial  Day. 

Grant  " 

Whittier        " 

Sigourney      " 

No.  3  Contains 

Fewer  of  the  longer  pieces  and  more 
of  the  shorter,  as  follows  : 

18  Declamations. 

21  Recitations. 

22  Dialogues. 

24  Pieces  for  the  Primary  Class. 
A  Christmas  Exercise. 
Opening  Piece,  and 
An  Historical  Celebration. 


No.  4  Contains 
Campbell  Memorial  Day. 
Longfellow 
Michael  Angelo 
Shakespeare 
Washington 
ChriM inns  Exercise. 
Arbor  Day 
New  Planting 
Thanksgiving 
Value  of  Knowledge  Exercise. 
Also  8  other  Dialogues. 
21  Recitations. 

23  Declamations. 

No.  5  Contains 

Browning  Memorial  Day. 
Autumn  Exercise. 
Bryant  Memorial  Day. 
New  Planting  Exercise. 
Christmas  Exercise. 
A  Concert  Exercise. 

24  Other  Dialogues, 
in  Declamations,  and 
36  Recitations. 

No.  6  Contains 
Spring;   a  flower  exercise  for  very 

young  pupils. 
Emerson  Memorial  Day. 
New  Year's  Day  Exercise. 
Holmes'  Memorial  Day. 
Fourth  of  July  Exercise. 
Shakespeare  Memorial  Day. 
Washington's  Birthday  Exercise. 
Also  6  other  Dialogues. 
6  Declamations. 
41  Recitations. 

15  Recitations  for  the  Primary  Class. 
And  4  Songs. 


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Reinbarfs  Outline  History  of  Education. 

With  chronological  Tables,  Suggestions,  and  Test  Questions. 
By  J.  A.  REINHABT,  Ph.  D.  Teachers'  Professional  Library. 
77  pp.,  limp  cloth,  25  cents;  to  teachers,  20  cents;  by  mail  2 
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This  is  one  of  the  little  books  intended  to  be  studied  in  con- 
nection with  THE  TEACHERS'  PBOPESSION.  The  publishers,  by 
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chance  to  improve  in  the  art  of  teaching.  "  Outlines  of  History 
of  Education  "  is  what  its  name  implies,  a  brief  but  comprehen- 
sive presentation  of  the  main  facts  in  educational  progress.  The 
chapters  are:  Introduction;  Education  among  the  Greeks;  Educa- 
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Dawn  of  the  New  Era;  Education  and  the  Reformation;  Educa- 
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Reinbarfs  Outline  Principles  of  Education 

By  J.  A.  REINHABT.,  Ph.  D.  Teachers'  Professional  Library. 
68  pp.,  limp  cloth,  25  cents. 

To  give  an  outline  of  a  great  subject,  including  nothing  trivial 
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task  has  been  successfully  performed  by  the  author  of  this  small 
volume,  who  is  an  educator  of  long  experience,  and  a  thorough 
student  of  the  science  of  education.  The  first  two  chapters  give 
a  general  view  of  the  subject,  and  the  other  chapters  treat 
of  the  intuitive,  imaginative,  and  logical  stages  of  education,  and 
the  principles  of  moral  education.  This  is  one  of  the  volumes 
intended  to  be  studied  in  connection  with  the  monthly  paper, 
THE  TEACHEBS'  PBOFESSION.  Type,  printing,  binding  are  neat  aod 
durable,  and  like  the  History  by  same  author. 

REINHABT' s  Civics  IN  EDUCATION, 

is  another  little  book  of  same  price  and  number  of  pages.    Ready 
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25 


^Paynes  Lectures  on   the  Science   and 

ART  OP  EDUCATION.  Reading  Circle  Edition.  By  JOSEPH 
PAYNE,  the  first  Professor  of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Edu- 
cation in  the  College  of  Preceptors,  London,  England. 
With  portrait.  16mo,  350pp.,  English  cloth,  with  gold 
back  stamp.  Price,  $1.00  ;  to  teachers,  80  cente  ;  by  mail, 
7  cents  extra.  Elegant  new  edition  from  new  plates. 

Teachers  who  are  seeking  t« 
know  the  principles  of  education 
will  find  them  clearly  set  forth  in 
this  volume.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  principles  are  the  basis 
upon  which  all  methods  of  teach- 
ing must  be  founded.  So  valu- 
able is  this  book  that  if  a  teacher 
were  to  decide  to  own  but  three 
works  on  education,  this  would 
be  one  of  them.  This  edition 
contains  all  of  Mr.  Payne's  writ- 
ings that  are  in  any  other  Ameri- 
can abridged  edition,  and  is  the, 
only  one  with  his  portrait.  It  10 
far  superior  to  any  other  edition 
published. 
JOSEPH  PATNB. 

WHY  THIS  EDITION  IS  THE  BEST 
(1.)  The  side-titles.  These  give  the*  contents  of  the  page 
(2.)  The  analysis  of  each  lecture,  with  reference  to  the  educa- 
tional points  in  it.  (3.)  The  general  analysis  pointing  out  the 
three  great  principles  found  at  the  beginning.  (4.)  The  index, 
where,  under  such  heads  as  Teaching,  Education,  The  Child, 
the  important  utterances  of  Mr.  Payne  are  set  forth.  (5.) 
Its  handy  shape,  large  type,  fine  paper,  and  press-work  and 
tasteful  binding.  All  of  these  features  make  this  a  most  val- 
uable book.  To  obtain  all  these  features  in  one  edition,  it 
was  found  necessary  to  get  out  this  new  edition.  t 

Ohio  Educational  Monthly.— "It  does  not  deal  with  shadowy  tneories; 
It  is  intensely  practical." 

Philadelphia  Educational  News.—"  Ought  to  be  in  library  of  every 
progressive  teacner." 

Educational  Courant.— "  To  know  how  to  teach,  more  if  needed  than 


a  knowledge  of  the  brandies  tmipht.    This  is  eat 
Pennsylvania  Journal  of  Education.— "Will  1 
Normal  School*  and  Institute  %  - 


cially  vaHiable." 

i  of  practical  value  to 


8KND  ALL  ORDBIU9  TO 

E.  L.  KELLOGG  <fc  CO.,  NEW  YORK  A  CSIOAGO. 


Song  Treasures. 


THE  PRICE  HAS  JTTST  BEEN 
GREATLY    REDUCED. 


Compiled  by  AMOS  M.  KELLOGG,  editor  of  the  SCHOOL  JOUB- 
NAL.    Elegant  green  and  gold  paper  cover,  64  pp.    Price, 
15  cents  each  ;  to  teachers,  12  cents ;  by  mail,  2  cents 
extra.     10th  thousand.     Special  terms  to  schools  for  25 
copies  and  over. 
This   is   a 
most  valua- 
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tion of  mu- 
sic    for    all 
schools   and 
institutes. 

1.  Most  of 
the  pieces 
have  been  se- 
lected by  the 
teachers    as 
favorites    in 
the   schools. 
They  are  the 
ones  the  pu- 
pils love  to 
sing. 

2.  All  the  pieces  "  have  a  ring  to  them  ;"  they  are  easily 
learned,  and  will  not  be-forgotten. 

8.  The  themes  and  words  are  appropriate  for  young  people. 
In  these  respects  the  work  will  be  found  to  possess  unusual 
merit.  Nature,  the  Flowers,  the  Seasons,  Ihe  Home,  our 
Duties,  our  Creator,  are  entuned  with  beautiful  music. 

4.  Great  ideas  may  find  an  entrance  into  the  mind  through 
music.    Aspirations  for  the  good,  the  beautiful,  and  the  true1 
are  presented  here  in  a  musical  form. 

5.  Many  of  the  words  have  been  written  especially  for  the 
book.    One  piece,  "  The  Voice  Within  Us,"  p.  57,  is  worth  the 
price  of  the  book. 

6.  The  titles  here  given  show  the  teacher  what  we  mean  : 

Ask  the  Children,  Beauty  Everywhere,  Be  in  Time,  Cheerfulness. 
Christmas  Bells,  Days  of  Summer  Glory,  The  Dearest  Spot,  Evening 
Song,  Gentle  Words,  Going  to  School,  Hold  up  the  R1«bt  Hand,  I  Love 
the  Merry,  Merry  Sunshine,  Kind  Deeds,  Over  in  the  Meadows,  Our 
Happy  School,  Scatter  the  Germs  of  the  Beautiful,  Time  to  Walk,  The 
Joliy  Worker*,  The  Teacher's  Life,  Tribute  to  Wbittier,  etc.,  etc. 


[i-'>MIV!T!i  1  l:»M 


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